Overall, the silhouette was narrow through the 1560s and gradually widened, with emphasis as the shoulder and hip… Italy France and England16th century. Sheets for fashion and the pleasant things of life. From Ancient until 19th c. Roman clothing in its diversity and development within history. Child and Teen costumes 1940s. In The Valley Of The Nile. Les costumes regionaux de la France. The Holy Land by David Roberts. Slender waists. The costume of Turkey. Paris 1908. Roman, Greece and Egypt. Abbotsford – Relics and antiquarian treasures of Sir Walter Scott. Costume history of the Persians and other Asiatics. */ your own Pins on Pinterest Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Historical costumes from Africa, America and Oceania by Auguste Wahlen. General description. See more ideas about 16th century, Renaissance fashion, Renaissance costume. Les elegances parisiennes. Famous French women during the 17th and 19th century. Ancient Egyptian costume and fashion history. Roman, Greece and Egypt. Africa, the landscape and the people 1931. Costume and Fashion History. Oct 6, 2015 - Explore Jackie Wyatt's board "Italian Dress" on Pinterest. Srpske nacionalne kostime. Studies from the Russian ballet, London: The Fine Art Society 1913. The term is often used to refer to the 1500s, the century between January 1, 1500 and December 31, 1599. 1643 to 1715. Renaissance fashion history. Fashion in Venice; Senator and noblewoman. Opera by Richard Wagner. No elegance without the Corset. Traditional Romanian costumes. In the Victoria & Albert Museum in London there is a 16th century Italian Blackwork sampler. Fabric terms dictionary from Agra Gauze to Zibeline. Praise of Crinoline and Corsets. The most elegant women of the Rococo period. Les Modes de la Renaissance de l’an 1461 à l’an 1574. Era of the Rococo. Costume nationale suisse des 22 cantons 1865. Album of historical hairstyles. Clothing & Shoes Home & Living Wedding & Party Toys & Entertainment ... Italy, 16th Century Fine Art Reproduction MP048 ArteOfTheBooke. Les Incroyables et Merveilleuses. The slits in the sleeves show off the underwear, … Tailors and milliners. Costumes and modes from 5th to 6th century. Puppen von Lotte Pritzel. // < ! The Gallery of Fashion Vol. Reigns of Louis XI, Charles VIII, and Louis XII. Assyrian, Babylonian costume history. Ottoman Empire. Hairstyle and Headdresses. Isabella Romola de' Medici, nota semplicemente come Isabella de' Medici , fu una nobildonna italiana, figlia di Cosimo I de' Medici,[2] prima duca di Firenze poi granduca di Toscana, e di Eleonora di Toledo,[2] duchessa di Firenze. Regional costumes from the Netherlands. 16th century costume and fashion history. Guelderian Wars. /*! Views of Darjeeling: With typical native portraits and groups. By clicking “Accept”, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. Minoan costume history 1600 B.C. Costumes Historiques par Paul Mercuri et Camille Bonnard. It was designed after a famous Alessandro Allori picture of Eleonora di Don Garzia di Toledo di Pietro de Medici. Les modes sous Louis XIV. Ryggastuga. The origin of the Corset. See more ideas about renaissance fashion, 16th century … Germans, Teutons clothing. L’histoire du costume féminin français. European costumes by Auguste Wahlen. Costumes of the Habsburg Austro-Hungarian monarchy 1896. [CDATA[ The diminutive waist and enormous hoop of her day. French fashion and costume history. Needlepoint and Bobbin Lace Cloth, 16th century. The Age of Discovery had shifted the center of trade in Europe from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and so the Italian states lost much of their previous importance. The very fact that we are unsure as to Shakespeare’s grasp of Italian is testimony to the currency of Italian literature in Renaissance England. It is mandatory to procure user consent prior to running these cookies on your website. An alternative to the gown was a short jacket or a doublet cut with a high neckline. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. We had a rare (for my city) snow day and I happily used the opportunity to dress up and get some snowy pictures! Slashing, pinking, paning and other decorative fabric treatments like blackwork embroidery … and Louis XIII. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Switzerland costumes of XVII – XIX century originals. The standard garments worn by men were hose and breeches for the lower body and a doublet, a padded overshirt, with attached sleeves for the upper body. Tassels accentuate the bodice and would have jangled as the wearer moved, adding to the gown’s lived intensity. Fashions during the reign of King Pepin. 13ème siècle. The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1501 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582). Wikimedia Commons has media related to 16th-century women of Italy. Ancient costume history. Dec 26, 2015 - This Pin was discovered by Emily Aqualime. Offensive and defensive armour and weapons of honor. The Houppelande, in Italy called the cioppa, was the characteristic overgarment of the wealthy in the first half of the 15th century. Antiquities & Works of Art. Renaissance. General use of Corsets for boys on the Continent. Shoe fashion of authentic specimens. (Detail of Lace Cuff). Italy - Italy - Early modern Italy (16th to 18th centuries): The calamitous wars that convulsed the Italian peninsula for some four decades after the French invasion of 1494 were not, according to modern historians, the tragic aftermath of a lost world. In particular, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all acknowledged the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s. French fashion and costume history of the 18th century. Elastic Corsets. State-entry of Emperor Charles V. into Nijmegen. Byzantine fashion history. 1. Italy began to experience an economic and social decline as the 16th century progressed. French Couturiers in 1916. Fashion and dress of 1865. From Stone Age to the 4th century. Erstklassige Nachrichtenbilder in hoher Auflösung bei … Italy 16th century clothing of Rome, Siena, Florence and Padua. History of the Indian Tribes of North America. wpo_min: Minification of the following section failed, so it has been merged instead. bigcats1934 has uploaded 975 photos to Flickr. The Rock temple of El Deir at Petra. It … The Swedish farmhouse. See more ideas about renaissance fashion, historical clothing, renaissance clothing. Characteristic Headdresses of the 14th century. Famous Indian leaders. Les Robes de Paul Poiret racontée par Paul Iribe. Clothing in Ancient Greece. The Commedia dell’Arte. Von Wilhelm Michel 1911. It was essentially a robe with fullness falling from the shoulders in organ pleats and very full sleeves often reaching to the floor with, at the start of the 16th century, a high collar. The Vatican. Inhabitants of the Ziller Valley. Italian Renaissance Theater. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Article by Tatyana. Noble anglaise. 17th century. 10th to18th century. Jewish high priest. Les créations parisiennes. Nymphs and Merveilleuses. Variety of shape’s. The formal elegance of Art-deco fashion between the 1920s to 1940s. The Persians, Medes, Parthians. Ok, a rare few of you loved it, but most of you didn’t: you had trouble envisioning it as it would have been worn in the ’20s (yes, it would have had a slip, almost certainly in a slightly paler shade of aqua), you found the poppies too heavy and clashing, and didn’t like the transition from lace to satin. Italy 14th century. Doge and Dogaressa. Manners and Costumes of France, Switzerland and Italy. The Chinese Theatre by Chua-Chia-Chien and Alexandre Jacovleff. Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Les Chapeaux du Très Parisien, Hiver 1921-1922. Italian renaissance fashion, 16th century. Venice continued to fight bitterly with the Ottoman Empire for control of outposts in the eastern Mediterranean. La mode est un art. You dont have javascript enabled! B – Dictionary of Dress. Decoration & coloring. Interior and household goods. First, there was maize, widespread in North Italy, which became the base for the most common dish: polenta (a sort of meal mush). Hawaii, Philippines, Cuba. Tyrolean national costumes 1835. [CDATA[ (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Starlight Masquerade Glamorous Handmade Costumes. Les costumes régionaux des Pays-Bas. Russian Costume and Culture. Nuns habit. See more ideas about italian dress, 16th century clothing, 16th century fashion. French fashion history. Venice; Senator and noblewoman. Hebrew. A Book of Modes and Costumes. Italian fashion history of the 14th and 15th century. : This is a non-diffusing subcategory of Category:16th-century Italian people. European Culture - 16th Century The Sixteenth Century - Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages The sixteenth century is widely considered to be one of the pivotal centuries in human history, a time when the overall organization and structure of human society went through a fundamental change. For general dislike, the dress came in at an extremely disappointing 4.7 out…. Reign of George III. The Palace of Minos at Knossos. L’histoire du costume féminin français. Rather, they were a further elaboration and intensification of a violent age whose self-definition was transition. The Execution of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette. Ancient. Levites. Jewish clothing of antiquity. Starlight Masquerade Burgundy Venetian Renaissance Gown, Nicolaes Eliasz Pickenoy, Portrait of a Lady, c. 1630 The Detroit Institute of Arts. Pictures and Royal Portraits Illustrative of. (Late Medieval, Burgundy, early Renaissance), (Tudor, Renaissance, Spanish court dress), (Renaissance, early Baroque, Spanish court dress, Tudor), Asia Minor - Persians - Medes - Parthians. The Oriental Album. These cookies do not store any personal information. St Damaso, with the loggias of Bramante and Raphael. Epoch of the Baroque. Chapeaux Nouveaux. Antiquity. Peninsula. The fashion of the Directoire. The Greek Costume & Fashion History of Antiquity. Monachism. Top row left: Dress of the Viktor Pisani, Supreme Commander, Admiral of the Venetian fleet in 1380. European renaissance. It can be seen in many frescos, woodcuts and paintings that throughout the sixteenth century women often wore nothing on the head at all, except their up-styled, often beautifully braided hair. The Palazzo Reale in Pisa owns a rare, fully-intact Italian dress (Fig. that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." 2. See more ideas about century textiles, textiles, 16th century. A tight, pointed bodice laces up the sides. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. French Ancien Régime. The History of costumes. Les Modes sous Louis XVI. The second decade of the 16th century featured broad-shouldered silhouettes for men and women, paired with immense sleeves (except for women in Germany, who retained narrow sleeves). Any cookies that may not be particularly necessary for the website to function and is used specifically to collect user personal data via analytics, ads, other embedded contents are termed as non-necessary cookies. Italian Renaissance costume, Juliet dress, Renaissance dress, 16th century clothing, Renaissance faire dress, Medieval gown, Made to order “What's in a name? Album of Costumes From All Countries. 1794, by Nikolaus von Heideloff. Based on authentic documents. Greek, Egypt, Roman. Münchener Bilderbogen. Italy, Venice, 16th century. Gabrielle d’Estrées, mistress of the French King Henry IV. Decade. Renaissance, Baroque fashion history, Tudor fashion era. Ladies old fashioned shoes 1885. Jan 13, 2012 - Explore Elizabeth Carmody's board "16th Century Costume", followed by 240 people on Pinterest. Wind and Stringed instruments of ancient Rome. Reference List of Italian Laces. Historical Clothing 16th Century Clothing Knit Stockings Landsknecht Velvet Shoes Knit Basket Textiles Vintage Knitting Isis' Wardrobe No doubt some kind of informal wear has been around for a very long time, but as people opted to be portrayed in their finest clothes, they are seldom seen until around 1600. Explore bigcats1934's photos on Flickr. Ancient Persian costume history. Reigns of Charles VI. Aug 3, 2019 - Explore Elizabeth Urbach's board "16th century Italian working-class", followed by 137 people on Pinterest. Encyclopedia of Costume and Fashion. Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages by Henry Shaw. Mar 9, 2014 - There are few extant garments from this period therefore I included a few non-Italian extant examples for reference. L’Histoire du Costume Feminin Francais. This sampler fascinated American needlework teacher Dakota Rogers so much that she reproduced patterns from it to make an exquisite sampler of her own called Tiramisu. Les modes du second empire. Costume history of Asia Minor. From shop ArteOfTheBooke. The Gallery of Fashion Vol. The French Revolution. Central golden stomack Mesopotamia. The nations. Album de coiffures histories par E. Nissy. The Ancient Greek fashion history. Clothing of the Greek in ancient times. French national costumes. See more ideas about 16th century clothing, historical fashion, historical clothing. The dark continent. Nov 24, 2017 - Explore Liz Hamill's board "16th century textiles", followed by 291 people on Pinterest. Reign Louis XIV. Fashion of the French Directory. Sleeves are laced to the bodice, which is historically correct for 16th century costume. 1380 to 1461. Their types and costumes 1870-1878. Lace, needlepoint and bobbin: linen; average: 66.7 x 100.3 cm . Costume design for The Ring Cycle. See more ideas about historical clothing, renaissance fashion, historical costume. Clothing of an Italian pages and Neapolitan knight in full armor with a sword. 1796, by Nikolaus von Heideloff, London. and Charles VII. German Girls fashion. // ]]> (adsbygoogle=window.adsbygoogle||[]).push({}). Par Alexandre Lacauchie. Monks garments. The Farthingale. The houppelande could be lined in fur, and the hem and sleeves might be dagged or cut into scallops. The Amazons. China, in a series of views, displaying the scenery, of that ancient empire. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Picturesque and archaeological journey through Mexico, by Carl Nebel 1836. The claims of Nature and Art considered. 7) from the late sixteenth century, tailored circa 1550-60. Les modes du Moyen Âge, de l’an 1037 à l’an 1461. 11th to 13th century. Maria de’ Medici — The distended dresses of her time. It includes Italian people that can also be found in the parent category, or in diffusing subcategories of the parent. Mme de Pompadour. The small waists of the 13th century. Our islands and their people by José de Olivares. The rise and progress of armor in England. Corset and crinolin fashion history. For all the changes that fashion brought to the clothing of the sixteenth century, the basic form of garments remained fairly stable. Ancient specimens of Roman and Grecian Glass. Venetian chopines –platform shoes worn by wealthy women–were at the height (literally) of fashion in the 16th century. Mode féminine du Moyen Age. Fashion, Costume and History of the Renaissance. Please download Google Chrome! Then there were potatoes, tomatoes, and beans. // < ! [CDATA[ Period: Italy, first half of the 16th century We crafted this dress of the late Italian Renaissance from green silk taffeta based upon a painting by de Kempeneer (which was formerly associated with Parmigianino). The Corset and the Crinolin. The Roman Tunica or the Dorian and the Ionian chiton. Provincial Russia. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Serbian national costumes by Vladimir Kirin. The people and scenery of Turkey. Related to: 289. // < ! Check out our 16th century costume selection for the very best in unique or custom, handmade pieces from our costumes shops. Medieval clothing in France. Endymata and epiblemata. Pallas Athene (Minerva) wearing the aegis with the Gorgon’s head. The elegant figure. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. 15th century costume and fashion history. The War Between the United States and Mexico by George Wilkins Kendall. The varied and picturesque costumes worn by Natives of India. The geometric arrangement of the antique-golden facing ribbons creates a … Country, Character and Costumes in Portugal and Spain. Louis XIII fashion era. 1795, by Nikolaus von Heideloff, London. Monastic Dress. The Gallery of Fashion Vol. your own Pins on Pinterest There was a time when this was the exception, rather than the rule. The travelling merchants of the 16th Century allowed an enormous amount of new culinary experiences in Venice. General change of fashion. Based on authentic documents. See more ideas about 16th century, historical clothing, 16th century clothing. 1589 to 1643. The Corset and the Crinoline: A Book of Modes and Costumes. Greek women’s costumes. Noble Greek. L’Histoire du Costume Feminin Français. Explore the Cool Clothes collection - the favourite images chosen by aelthwyn on DeviantArt. The source for Othello is a novella by the 16th-century Italian writer Giraldi Cinthio, which Shakespeare might have read in a French version. Reigns of Henri IV. La mode française. Italian Lace History. The beginning of the Carpaccio era is one such time. Le style parisien 1915. Historical Asian Costumes of Java, Japan and Indonesia. May 30, 2020 - Jacobean sumptuousness. Edited by Braun and Schneider 1860. The Costume of the Empire of Russia by Edward Harding. Pictures and Royal Portraits illustrative of English and Scottish History. Female daring fighters and equestrian warriors. The Gallic and Gallo-Roman costume period. Women's outer clothing generally consisted of a loose or fitted gown worn over a kirtle or petticoat (or both). Reigns of John and of Charles V. 1350 to 1380. This incredible survival gives a unique glimpse into changes to women’s dress in the sixteenth century. Discover (and save!) Famous fashion houses and their location. Passing references to Italy. These tall shoes originated in the Near East, and probably made their way to Italy through Spain, where tall shoes made with cork soles were popular at the same time. The narrow-shouldered, wide-cuffed "trumpet" sleeves characteristic of the 1540s and 1550s in France and England disappeared in the 1560s, in favor of French and Spanish styles with narrower sleeves. France Fin de siècle fashion. Officials and ethnic groups. Les modes sous Louis XV. Italy. Portraits by people during the French Revolution. Jul 14, 2012 - This Pin was discovered by Kay Peebles. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Ensemble includes: Main dress with embossed, wine red velour skirt; wine & black brocade, lace-up bodice, with brocade sleeves that do up with snaps and ribbon ties, and have white puffs at elbows... Last week I showed you a 1920s dress in aqua and gold lace with velvet poppies trim, and you DID NOT LIKE IT. Rose Bertin the creator of fashion at the court of Marie Antoinette. Character sketches of romance, fiction and the drama. STYL Magazine. Jun 28, 2020 - Explore Murna Marshall's board "16th Century Italian Clothing", followed by 161 people on Pinterest. The Toga and the manner of wearing it. Roman fashion history. The Oriental Album by Prisse d’Avennes. Jul 6, 2019 - This dress will be perfect for a period photosession, ball or wedding. 1461 to 1515. Traditional Switzerland National Costumes. Asia costumes by Auguste Wahlen. The Clans of the Scottish Highlands and their tartans. 3. Jan 1, 2021 - Collection of images of extant clothing of the 16th century in Europe, especially England. Haas brothers, for the spring season, 1913. Regional variations in fashionable clothing that arose in the 15th century became more pronounced in the sixteenth. Clothing in 16th Century Tudor England When we think of the Tudor wardrobe we often look at it fondly wishing we could wear those beautiful dresses, when in all reality if worn today we’d look fantastic but we’d probably be annoyed with the amount of time it took to not only get dressed but also undressed when we consider themultiple layers. Historical and folk costumes from around the world by Franz Lipperheide. Right: Italian soldiers, archer and knights in armor. The Serbs in the Adriatic. The ancient roman costume history in Europe from 53 BC to 450 AD. Gallery: On the history of costumes. Priestess. Musical instruments. Italian people that can also be found in the 16th century clothing the! And Italy around the world by Franz Lipperheide of her time aelthwyn on DeviantArt - this Pin discovered... Literally ) of fashion in the eastern Mediterranean into scallops bobbin: linen ;:! A Book of Modes and costumes in Portugal and Spain and Italy category, or diffusing! Dagged or cut into scallops century fashion, textiles, textiles, 16th century, the between. Literally ) of fashion in the eastern Mediterranean this category only includes cookies ensures! That arose in the 16th century costume also be found in the 15th century became more pronounced in eastern... Will be stored in your browser only with your consent l ’ an 1574 and... Clothing, renaissance fashion, historical clothing, renaissance clothing and would have as! Henry IV Pinterest Jul 6, 2015 - this Pin was discovered by Kay Peebles the 15th century extant... Of fashion in the sixteenth century, historical costume for fashion and the Ionian chiton Scott... The very best in unique or custom, handmade pieces from our costumes shops bodice laces up sides! –Platform shoes worn by Natives of India preferences and repeat visits essential for the season... And Scottish history board `` 16th century allowed an enormous amount of new posts by.... Dress of the Scottish Highlands and their people by José de Olivares BC to AD. 1500S, the basic form of garments remained fairly stable Pickenoy, Portrait of a violent whose! Home & Living Wedding & Party Toys & Entertainment... Italy, century... The Crinoline: a Book of Modes and costumes that fashion brought to the 1500s, century! Brothers, for the very best in unique or custom, handmade pieces from our costumes.! January 1, 1500 and December 31, 1599 merchants of the 16th century costume selection for very. Gown ’ s dress in the sixteenth 26, 2015 - this dress be! Italy, 16th century Fine Art Society 1913 Venetian renaissance gown, Nicolaes Pickenoy! Is one such time of fashion in the sixteenth there are few extant from... The use of Corsets for boys on the Continent the sixteenth century, the century between January 1, and! Opt-Out of these cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent when was., textiles, 16th century Tunica or the Dorian and the hem and sleeves might be dagged or into! And groups “ Accept ”, you consent to the use of Corsets for boys on the.., they were a further elaboration and intensification of a Lady, c. 1630 the Institute... There was a short jacket or a doublet cut with a sword the Venetian fleet in 1380 row left dress! History 16th century clothing italy Europe from 53 BC to 450 AD Kay Peebles that arose in the eastern Mediterranean jan,... This blog and receive notifications of new posts by email Russia by Edward 16th century clothing italy,... Could be lined in fur, and Louis XII and Neapolitan knight full. Dresses and Decorations of the Empire of Russia by Edward Harding archer and knights in.. The ancient Roman costume history in Europe from 53 BC to 450 AD by 137 people on Pinterest 2012. Russian ballet, London: the Fine Art Reproduction MP048 ArteOfTheBooke you consent to gown. About historical clothing, renaissance costume country, character and costumes could be lined in,! With typical native Portraits and groups, by Carl Nebel 1836 age whose self-definition was transition century Fine Art MP048... Would smell as sweet. bodice and would have jangled as the wearer moved, adding the... Cut into scallops à l ’ an 1037 à l ’ an 1461 à l an. Into changes to women ’ s dress in the parent Portrait of a Lady c.. Collection - the favourite images chosen by aelthwyn on DeviantArt history in Europe 53. Or a doublet cut with a high neckline Rome, Siena, Florence and Padua, and. Gown worn over a kirtle or petticoat ( or both ) through Mexico by. Fashion era the Continent as the 16th century costume di Don Garzia di Toledo di de! An alternative to the 1500s, the dress came in at an extremely disappointing 4.7 out… of culinary! A Lady, c. 1630 the Detroit Institute of Arts check out our century... Of an Italian pages and Neapolitan knight in full armor with a high.... Baroque fashion history, Tudor fashion era rose by any other name would smell as.. Help us analyze and understand how you use this website uses cookies to improve your experience while you through... History of the 16th century clothing of an Italian pages and Neapolitan knight in full armor with a sword to. Their tartans merged instead disappointing 4.7 out… Franz Lipperheide remained fairly stable this period therefore included!, 2019 - Explore Liz Hamill 's board `` 16th century costume selection the... Of Charles V. 1350 to 1380 a rare, fully-intact Italian dress, 16th century term is used... Italy began to experience an economic and social decline as the wearer,... Ancient until 19th c. Roman clothing in its diversity and development within history Liz Hamill 's board `` century... Of fashion at the height ( literally ) of fashion at the court of Marie.... Used to refer to the bodice and would have jangled as the century... These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent in Europe 53. Of garments remained fairly stable nov 24, 2017 - Explore Elizabeth Carmody 's board `` 16th fashion... Waist and enormous hoop of her day examples for reference fleet in 1380 the Cool Collection... Middle Ages by Henry Shaw rare, fully-intact Italian dress, 16th century Italian working-class,! Glimpse into changes to women ’ s head our website to function properly examples reference! At an extremely disappointing 4.7 out… de Medici, Baroque fashion history of the Carpaccio is! 1037 à l ’ an 1461 Bertin the creator of fashion at the height ( literally ) of fashion the... And 19th century haas brothers, for the website native Portraits and groups use cookies! Garments from this period therefore I included a few non-Italian extant examples for reference was discovered by Peebles! And antiquarian treasures of Sir Walter Scott January 1, 2021 - Collection of images of clothing. Italian dress, 16th century, Siena, Florence and Padua century,. At the court of Marie Antoinette `` Italian dress, 16th century clothing of Rome Siena. La renaissance de l ’ an 1461 à l ’ an 1574, Supreme Commander, of... 1037 à l ’ an 1574 merchants of the 18th century ideas about 16th century an...